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第12部分

the vested interests and the common man-第12部分

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has come in evidence in this later time is traceable to the fact 
that other things have not remained the same。 The odious outcome 
has been made by disturbing causes; not by these enlightened 
principles of honest living。 Security and unlimited discretion in 
the rights of ownership were once rightly made much of as a 
simple and obvious safeguard of self…direction and self…help for 
the common man; whereas; in the event; under a new order of 
circumstances; it all promises to be nothing better than a means 
of assured defeat and vexation for the common man。 
 
Chapter 4 
 
Free Income 
 
    Industry of the modern sort  mechanical; specialised; 
standardised; drawn on a large scale  is highly productive。 
When this industrial system of the new order is not hindered by 
outside control it will yield a very large net return of output 
over cost;  counting cost in terms of man power and necessary 
consumption; so large; indeed; that the cost of what is 
necessarily consumed in productive work; in the way of materials; 
mechanical appliances; and subsistence of the workmen; is 
inconsiderable by comparison。 The same thing may be described by 
saying that the necessary consumption of subsistence and 
industrial plant amounts to but an inconsiderable deduction from 
the gross output of industry at any time。 So inordinately 
productive is this familiar new order of industry that in 
ordinary times it is forever in danger of running into excesses 
and turning out an output in excess of what the market  that is 
to say the business situation  will tolerate。 There is constant 
danger of 〃overproduction;〃 So that there is commonly a large 
volume of man power unemployed and an appreciable proportion of 
the industrial plant lying idle or half idle。 It is quite 
unusual; perhaps altogether out of the question; to let all or 
nearly all the available plant and man power run at full capacity 
even for a limited time。 
    It is; of course; impossible to say how large the net 
aggregate product over cost would be  counting the product in 
percentages of the necessary cost  in case this industrial 
system were allowed to work at full capacity and with free use of 
all the available technological knowledge。 There is no safe 
ground for an estimate; for such a thing has never been tried; 
and no near approach to such a state of things is to be looked 
for under the existing circumstances of ownership and control。 
Even under the most favorable conditions of brisk times the 
business situation will not permit it。 There will at least always 
be an indefinitely large allowance to be reckoned for work and 
substance expended on salesmanship; advertising; and competitive 
management designed to increase sales。 This line of expenditures 
is a necessary part of businesslike management; although it 
contributes nothing to the output of goods; and in that sense it 
is to be counted as a necessary deduction from the net productive 
capacity of the industrial system as it runs。 It would also be 
extremely difficult to make allowance for this deduction; since 
much of it is not recognised as such by the men in charge and 
does not appear on their books under any special descriptive 
heading。 In one way and another; and for divers and various 
reasons; the net production of goods serviceable for human use 
falls considerably short of the gross output; and the gross 
output is always short of the productive capacity of the 
available plant and man power。 
    Still; taken as it goes; with whatever handicap of these 
various kinds is to be allowed for; it remains patently true that 
the net product greatly exceeds the cost。 So much so that 
whatever is required for the replacement of the material 
equipment consumed in production; plus 〃reasonable returns〃 on 
this equipment; commonly amounts to no more than a fraction of 
the total output。 The resulting margin of excess product over 
cost plus reasonable returns on the material equipment is due to 
the high productive efficiency of the current state of the 
industrial arts and is the source of that free income which gives 
rise to intangible assets。 The distinction between tangible 
assets and intangible is not a hard and fast one; of course; but 
the difference is sufficiently broad and sufficiently well 
understood for use in the present connection; so long as no pains 
is taken to confuse these terms with needless technical verbiage。 
    To avoid debate and digression; it may be remarked that 
〃reasonable returns〃 is also here used in the ordinary sense of 
the expression; without further definition; as being sufficiently 
understood and precise enough for the argument。 The play of 
motives and transactions by which a rough common measure of 
reasonable returns has been arrived at is taken for granted。 A 
detailed examination of all that matter would involve an extended 
digression; and nothing would be gained for the argument。 
According to the traditional view; which was handed on from the 
period before the coming of corporation finance; and which still 
stands over as an article of common belief in the certified 
economic theories; 〃capital〃 represents the material equipment; 
valued at its cost; together with funds in hand required as a 
〃working capital〃 to provide materials and a labor force。 On this 
view; corporation securities are taken to cover ownership of the 
plant and the needed working capital; and there has been a 
slow…dying prejudice against admitting that anything less 
tangible than these items should properly be included in the 
corporate capitalisation and made a basis on which to issue 
corporate securities。 Hence that stubborn popular prejudice 
against 〃watered stock〃 which corporation finance had to contend 
with all through the latter half of the nineteenth century。 
〃Watered stock〃 is now virtually a forgotten issue。 Corporation 
finance has disposed of the quarrel by discontinuing the relevant 
facts。 
    There is still a recognised distinction between tangible 
assets and intangible; but it has come to be recognised in 
corporation practice that the only reasonable basis of 
capitalisation for any assets; tangible or intangible; is the 
earning…capacity which they represent。 And the amount of capital 
is a question of capitalisation of the available assets。 So that; 
if the material equipment; e。g。; is duly capitalised on its 
earning…capacity; any question as to its being 〃watered〃 is no 
longer worth pursuing; since stock can be said to be 〃watered〃 
only by comparison with the cost of the assets which it covers; 
not in relation to its earning…capacity。 The latter point is 
taken care of by the stock quotations of the market。 On the other 
hand; intangible assets neither have now nor ever have had any 
other basis than capitalisation of earning capacity; and any 
question of 〃water〃 in their case is consequently quite idle。 
Intangible assets will not hold water。 
    Corporation finance is one of the outgrowths of the New 
Order。 And one of the effects wrought by corporation finance is a 
blurring of the distinction between tangible assets and 
intangible; inasmuch as both are now habitually determined by a 
capitalisation of earning…capacity; rather than by their 
ascertained cost; and it is difficult; if not impossible; to draw 
a hard and fast line between that part of a concern's 
earning…capacity which is properly to be assigned to its plant 
and that which is due to its control of the market。 Still; an 
intelligible distinction is maintained in common usage; between 
tangible assets and intangible; even if the distinction is 
somewhat uncertain in detail; and such a distinction is 
convenient; so long as too sharp a contrast between the two is 
not insisted on。 
    The earning…capacity of the tangible assets is presumed to 
represent the productive capacity of the plant; considered as a 
mechanical apparatus engaged in an industrial process for the 
production of goods or services; it is presumed to rest on the 
market value of the mechanical output of the plant。 The plant is 
a productive factor because and in so far as it turns to 
practical account the state of the industrial arts now in use;  
the community's joint stock of technological knowledge。 So soon; 
or so far; as the plant and its management falls short of meeting 
the ordinary requirements of this current state of the industrial 
arts; and fails to make use of such technological knowledge as is 
commonly employed; the whole works ceases by that much to be a 
productive factor。 The productive efficiency; and the productive 
value; of any given item of industrial equipment is measured by 
its effective use of the technological knowledge current in the 
community for the time being。 So also; the productive value of 
any given body of natural resources land; raw materials; motive 
power  is strictly dependent on the degree in which it fits 
into the industrial system as it runs。 
    This dependence of productive value on conformity to and use 
of the state of the industrial arts is constantly shown in the 
case of land and similar natural resources; by the fluct

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